In the United States, spectrum allocation isn’t just a technical process—it’s a balancing act. The government distributes electromagnetic frequencies with a focus on efficiency, avoiding interference, and supporting both public and private needs.
These principles keep everything running smoothly, from military systems to your smartphone.
Think of radio spectrum as a limited natural resource inside the electromagnetic spectrum, powering wireless communications. The usable range stretches from 0 up to 300 GHz.
This range supports everything from scientific research to national defense—and of course, commercial telecommunications.
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) split the spectrum into about 800 frequency bands. These bands support 34 different radio services—fixed communications, mobile networks, broadcasting, and satellite operations, just to name a few.
When agencies allocate spectrum, they try to maximize social welfare. The idea is to make sure frequencies benefit the public and help the economy grow.
This approach also helps prevent interference, so everyone’s devices and systems work reliably.
Each frequency allocation takes into account technical stuff like how signals travel and how much bandwidth users need. Lower frequencies travel farther but carry less data.
Higher frequencies, on the other hand, can deliver more information but don’t cover as much ground.
The U.S. uses several methods to hand out spectrum rights and keep everything organized. Spectrum auctions are the main way for commercial players to get access, and these auctions have brought in about $258.7 billion for the U.S. Treasury since 1994.
In 1999, the FCC adopted some core spectrum management ideas that are still around:
Administrative assignments cover government needs. NTIA manages all federal spectrum and coordinates with agencies that need specific frequencies, like for air traffic control or military comms.
Sharing mechanisms let multiple users access the same frequencies, either by splitting up geography or using time-based coordination. It’s a way to squeeze more use out of the spectrum when exclusive access isn’t really necessary.
People organize radio frequencies into bands, each serving its own purpose and user group. Low-band spectrum (below 1 GHz) is great for covering big areas and getting through buildings, but it can’t carry as much data.
Mid-band spectrum (1-6 GHz) offers a sweet spot—good coverage and decent capacity. It’s super important for 5G, which has driven up demand big time.
High-band spectrum (above 6 GHz) gives you blazing speeds, but the signals don’t travel far. You need a lot of infrastructure to make it work, especially in cities.
Federal spectrum allocations set aside certain bands for government stuff—radar, satellites, public safety. The military uses big chunks across several ranges.
The plan for dividing up spectrum keeps changing as new needs pop up. Coordination is key, making sure U.S. assignments fit with international standards and support both national goals and commercial innovation.
Two main federal agencies run the show when it comes to spectrum allocation in the U.S. The Federal Communications Commission handles commercial and civilian uses, while the National Telecommunications and Information Administration looks after federal government needs.
They work together through agreements to keep spectrum distribution efficient for both sides.
The FCC acts as an independent agency, taking charge of all non-federal spectrum use. That means commercial wireless carriers, state and local government communications, and civilian radio services fall under its umbrella.
The FCC mostly uses competitive auctions to allocate spectrum. These auctions have pulled in about $258.7 billion for the U.S. Treasury between 1994 and January 2022.
By awarding licenses to the highest bidders, the FCC tries to make sure spectrum goes to those who value it most.
They regulate spectrum between 3 kilohertz and 300 gigahertz. That covers everything from cell phones and Wi-Fi to satellite links.
The FCC sets technical standards and interference rules for these services.
Commercial 5G is a huge priority for the FCC. They’re working to free up mid-band spectrum for wireless carriers.
But according to government oversight, the FCC hasn’t set specific goals for managing 5G spectrum demand. That’s a bit of a gap.
NTIA works within the Department of Commerce, managing spectrum for federal agencies. This includes scientific research, defense, homeland security, and air traffic control.
Federal agencies rely heavily on radio spectrum for critical operations. NTIA makes sure they get the bandwidth they need and pushes for efficient use across the board.
NTIA also handles international spectrum coordination. The agency represents U.S. interests in global talks, working with other countries to avoid cross-border interference.
Lately, more folks want to shift federal spectrum to commercial use. NTIA feels the pressure, but it doesn’t really have a formal process for planning these moves. Reports say the agency could use better management practices for spectrum transfers.
The FCC and NTIA try to coordinate spectrum management through interagency agreements and working groups. They tackle domestic issues and present a united front in international negotiations.
Some coordination methods work well, but there’s no clear way to resolve disagreements. When the agencies can’t agree, decisions get delayed.
Both agencies team up on reallocating spectrum from federal to commercial use. These transfers help expand mobile networks—especially 5G.
It’s a tricky process because they need to make sure federal operations aren’t disrupted.
Key areas they coordinate on:
As tech keeps evolving, demand for spectrum just keeps going up. This makes better coordination between the agencies more important than ever.
The United States Frequency Allocation Chart acts as the official guide for managing radio spectrum use across both federal and non-federal services. It lays out how frequencies get divided up and sets the rules for who gets priority.
The U.S. frequency allocation chart brings together two big components. The International Table of Frequency Allocations sets the global framework from the International Telecommunication Union.
The United States Table of Frequency Allocations tweaks those standards for national needs.
The chart splits the world into three regions for planning. This lets each region optimize spectrum use based on its own geography and tech needs.
The U.S. falls under Region 2, which covers North and South America.
The FCC writes these allocations into Section 2.106 of its rules. This legal setup keeps things consistent for all spectrum users.
The commission updates the online version after new rules come out, so the info stays current.
Understanding the chart takes a bit of practice. Primary services show up in all caps—like FIXED or MOBILE. These get top priority and the strongest protection from interference.
Secondary services use regular sentence case. They can’t interfere with primary services and don’t get protection from them.
But they do get protection from other secondary services assigned later.
The chart uses colors and symbols to show different bands and any usage limits. Footnotes add extra details about certain allocations and international coordination.
If you want the full picture, you really need to check both the main chart and the footnotes.
The U.S. Table of Frequency Allocations splits spectrum into federal and non-federal categories. Federal allocations serve government agencies—military, aviation, emergency services.
NTIA manages these assignments.
Non-federal allocations cover commercial wireless, broadcasters, and amateur radio. The FCC oversees these users.
Some bands allow both federal and non-federal users to share spectrum, but only through coordination.
This dual system reflects just how complicated spectrum management has become. Both agencies have to work closely to prevent interference between commercial and government users.
The allocation chart makes it clear which frequencies need coordination between these groups.
The United States operates in a dual regulatory world for spectrum. International agreements through the ITU keep things compatible globally.
Domestic rules handle national telecom needs.
The International Telecommunication Union is the main international body for spectrum coordination. With 193 member nations (including the U.S.), it sets the rules for how countries manage radio spectrum.
The ITU Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R) creates technical recommendations for spectrum allocation worldwide.
Countries work together here to use spectrum and satellite orbital positions rationally.
Key ITU Functions:
The U.S. takes part in World Radiocommunication Conferences, where big decisions on spectrum get made. These conferences happen every few years and set binding international agreements.
American telecom companies benefit from ITU coordination. There’s less interference and better global roaming.
ITU standards and data formats make international communications possible.
The FCC manages commercial spectrum, while NTIA oversees federal government use. This separation keeps civilian and government responsibilities clear.
Domestic Framework Elements:
The FCC pushes for flexible policies so services and tech can evolve. Less red tape means more competition and better use of spectrum.
Auction systems bring in revenue and help spectrum end up where it’s most valuable.
Federal agencies work together on spectrum sharing to use resources efficiently.
The government uses milestone management systems to track complex telecom projects and avoid wasting spectrum.
Enforcement includes penalties for non-compliance and inefficient use. There are appeal processes, but the agencies still hold authority over spectrum resources.
The radio frequency spectrum covers everything from low bands used by submarines to ultra-high frequencies powering advanced satellites. Cellular networks mostly stick to sub-6 GHz bands.
Modern wireless communications tap into everything—from old-school UHF to millimeter wave frequencies above 24 GHz.
The electromagnetic spectrum stretches from 3 Hz all the way up to 3,000 GHz. People usually split it into different frequency bands, each with its own quirks. Very low frequency (VLF), for example, sits between 3-30 kHz and can punch through deep underground and underwater. The military actually leans on VLF for submarine communications since these signals can travel thousands of miles.
Low frequency (LF) runs from 30-300 kHz and covers things like AM radio broadcasting. Medium frequency (MF) goes from 300 kHz up to 3 MHz, and you’ll find most AM radio stations between 530-1700 kHz in this range.
High frequency (HF) covers 3-30 MHz. Long-distance communications depend on this band a lot. Amateur radio folks and international broadcasters really rely on how HF signals can bounce around the world.
Very high frequency (VHF) ranges from 30-300 MHz. This is where FM radio lives (88-108 MHz), along with TV channels 2-13. Pilots and air traffic controllers also use VHF for aircraft communications.
Ultra high frequency (UHF) sits between 300 MHz and 3 GHz. TV channels 14-83 use this space, and GPS signals at 1.5 GHz show up here too. Super high frequency (SHF) goes from 3-30 GHz and supports satellite communications.
Extremely high frequency (EHF) covers 30-300 GHz. These millimeter waves make high-capacity point-to-point links and new 5G applications possible.
Cellular networks use a bunch of different frequency bands for voice and data. The 700 MHz band is a favorite for coverage, especially since it handles building penetration and long-range stuff so well. Major carriers roll out LTE coverage in rural areas using this spectrum.
The 800 MHz band handles both cellular voice and public safety communications. Sprint used to run its CDMA network here before merging with T-Mobile.
PCS spectrum at 1900 MHz brings higher capacity to busy urban markets. T-Mobile and AT&T have a lot of PCS spectrum for 4G LTE. But the 1900 MHz band doesn’t travel as far, so they need more cell sites to fill in gaps.
AWS spectrum uses 1700 MHz for uplink and 2100 MHz for downlink. This paired spectrum powers high-speed data and carrier aggregation.
The 2.5 GHz band offers massive data capacity thanks to wide channels. T-Mobile grabbed a huge chunk of this through the Sprint merger, which really gave them an edge.
Mid-band 5G happens in the 3.7-3.98 GHz C-band. The FCC auctioned off this spectrum in 2021, and it pulled in over $80 billion. Verizon and AT&T threw down big money for C-band licenses.
Unlicensed wireless stuff runs in special bands, so you don’t need a license for each device. The 2.4 GHz ISM band is everywhere—Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, even microwave ovens use it. But wow, it gets crowded and interference is a real headache in cities.
The 5 GHz band feels a lot less congested and has more channels for Wi-Fi. Wi-Fi 6 and Wi-Fi 6E devices love this band for high-performance networking. The 6 GHz band is even newer and gives Wi-Fi 6E devices more room to breathe.
Fixed wireless services pop up in bands like 3.65 GHz and some millimeter wave spots. Internet providers use fixed wireless to reach rural communities that don’t have many options.
Satellite communications need C-band (3.7-4.2 GHz downlink), Ku-band (12-18 GHz), and Ka-band (26.5-40 GHz). These bands handle everything from TV to broadband internet.
Millimeter wave spectrum above 24 GHz lets 5G hit ultra-high speeds. The 28 GHz and 39 GHz bands support multi-gigabit wireless broadband in cities, but coverage is tricky since these signals don’t go far.
The Federal Communications Commission hands out specific frequency bands for AM and FM radio across the U.S. AM radio uses medium frequency, while FM radio taps into very high frequency for better audio quality.
AM radio stations broadcast between 535 kHz and 1705 kHz in the medium frequency band. The FCC chops this up into 117 channels, each 10 kHz apart. Every AM station gets a single channel to use.
The band splits into a couple of sections. Standard AM is from 535-1605 kHz with 107 channels. The expanded AM band runs from 1605-1705 kHz, adding 10 more channels since 1991.
AM waves behave differently during the day and at night. Daytime signals stick close to the transmitter because of ground wave propagation. At night, signals bounce off the ionosphere and can travel hundreds of miles.
The FCC sorts AM stations into four classes:
Power limits swing from just 1 watt for the smallest stations up to 50,000 watts for clear channel giants.
FM radio broadcasts between 88.1 MHz and 107.9 MHz in the very high frequency band. The FCC carves out 100 channels, spaced 200 kHz apart. This extra room allows for stereo sound and less interference.
The FM band breaks down into three parts. Non-commercial educational stations use 88.1-91.9 MHz (channels 201-220). Commercial FM stations get 92.1-107.9 MHz (channels 221-300).
FM radio waves travel in straight lines—they’re line-of-sight. They don’t really bend around stuff like AM waves. If you put the transmitter up high, you get much better coverage.
The FCC puts FM stations into classes based on power and antenna height:
To avoid interference, stations on the same frequency need to be a minimum distance apart. The FCC bases these distances on each station’s class and power.
Amateur radio operators get their own bands for experimenting and chatting. The FCC handles licensing, which lets hams use certain slices of the spectrum.
Amateur radio operators can use a bunch of different frequency bands across the spectrum. These range from low frequencies around 1.8 MHz all the way up to microwave bands above 10 GHz.
Some of the most popular bands? 80 meters (3.5-4.0 MHz), 40 meters (7.0-7.3 MHz), and 20 meters (14.0-14.35 MHz). Each band has its own quirks for local and long-distance contacts.
VHF and UHF bands are great for local communication. The 2-meter band (144-148 MHz) and 70-centimeter band (420-450 MHz) support repeaters and emergency communications.
Microwave bands let amateur operators play with advanced digital modes and high-speed data. You need line-of-sight for these frequencies, but the bandwidth is huge for creative projects.
Sometimes, amateurs have to share bands with government or commercial users. In shared bands, hams need to avoid interfering with primary users.
The FCC offers three license classes for amateur radio. Technician licenses open up VHF and UHF bands, plus a little bit of HF. General licenses let you use more HF for those long-distance contacts.
Extra class licenses give full privileges across all amateur bands. Every license requires a written exam covering technical stuff and operating rules.
Amateur operators have to follow strict rules. They can’t run a business or get paid for radio work. Every transmission must include the operator’s call sign.
Power limits depend on the band and license class. Most HF bands allow up to 1,500 watts for Extra and General licensees. VHF and UHF usually have the same limit, though there are exceptions.
For international contacts, third-party traffic rules kick in. You can only relay messages to countries where the U.S. has an agreement.
Federal agencies keep big chunks of spectrum for national security, air traffic control, and emergency communications. These reserved frequencies make military communications, maritime navigation systems, and first responder networks possible.
The Department of Defense runs massive communication networks across a lot of frequency bands. Military teams need dedicated spectrum for tactical radios, radar, and intelligence gathering.
Defense agencies use mid-band frequencies for lots of critical gear. Other countries use these same bands for commercial 5G, which can cause headaches when U.S. forces deploy overseas.
Key Military Applications:
Military and commercial spectrum needs often clash. Decades ago, the government set aside these bands when wireless tech was pretty basic. Now, commercial networks want the same spectrum for advanced services.
Moving military systems to new frequencies is expensive and slow. Engineers have to redesign and test equipment. Training programs need updates, too. Honestly, the whole process can take years.
Aviation and maritime systems depend on certain frequencies to keep things safe. Air traffic controllers and pilots use dedicated bands to talk. Ships need navigation frequencies for positioning and emergencies.
The Federal Aviation Administration manages aviation spectrum. These bands can’t have interference—safety depends on clear communication.
Maritime navigation relies on radio beacons and GPS. The Coast Guard needs reliable comms for search and rescue. Commercial ships count on these systems for safe travel in busy waters.
Protected Navigation Frequencies:
International agreements set these assignments. Countries work together to prevent interference, since ships and planes cross borders all the time.
First responders get their own spectrum for emergencies. Police, fire, and EMS need reliable radios during disasters and daily work.
The 700 MHz band supports public safety broadband. Agencies use this for data and video, letting them share info fast.
Local agencies usually run their own public safety spectrum. Cities and counties manage radio systems, and states step in for big emergencies.
Public Safety Spectrum Bands:
Interoperability is still a headache. Agencies often use radios that can’t talk to each other. Disasters really show where the gaps are. New policies try to fix this and help agencies work together.
Federal grants help local agencies buy new gear. The government funds radio systems that work across different jurisdictions, so response times get better during emergencies.
The FCC manages over 20,000 MHz of spectrum for satellite communications across lots of bands. Lately, they’ve been opening up underused spectrum while still protecting existing terrestrial and space services.
The 12.7-13.25 GHz band is a main spot for Fixed-Satellite Service. Current rules limit geostationary satellites to domestic and international comms. Non-geostationary systems can only uplink through individually licensed earth stations.
The FCC wants to get rid of barriers and let satellites use this band more fully. New rules would allow Earth Stations in Motion, matching international standards. They’re also looking at letting both uplink and downlink satellite operations into the mix.
The 42-42.5 GHz band is a blank slate—no satellite allocations or licensees yet. Right now, non-Federal Fixed Service and Mobile Service use it. The FCC is considering making this a primary or secondary FSS space-to-Earth band.
Higher frequencies offer big capacity for satellite backhaul. The 51.4-52.4 GHz band supports NGSO Earth-to-space gateways. W-band frequencies from 92-114.25 GHz give massive bandwidth with high-gain, narrow beams.
NASA’s Deep Space Network depends on spectrum access for critical space exploration missions.
Radio astronomy services operate in several bands, including parts of the W-band spectrum.
These passive services really need protection from interference, especially during sensitive observations.
The 18.1-18.6 GHz band is now under consideration for expanded space-to-space communications.
NTIA and NASA suggest new commercial allocations that work alongside Federal Government operations.
This frequency range supports both growing commercial space activities and various mission requirements.
Suborbital spaceflight uses the 1435-1525 MHz band for launch communications.
The International Space Station also asks for more spectrum for space-to-space communications during crew and cargo missions.
These allocations help the commercial space industry and research activities keep moving forward.
Federal and commercial operators coordinate to use spectrum efficiently.
Protection measures keep interference away from critical space research and exploration missions.
The FCC tries to balance commercial needs with scientific research requirements across all space communication bands.
Federal agencies set aside certain spectrum bands for radio astronomy and scientific research.
These allocations shield important space observations and government research from commercial interference.
Radio astronomy can’t function without strong protection from interference.
The National Radio Astronomy Observatory runs major facilities, like the Green Bank Telescope in West Virginia’s National Radio Quiet Zone.
Key protected bands include 1400-1427 MHz for hydrogen line observations and 1610.6-1613.8 MHz for hydroxyl detection.
These frequencies provide essential data about star formation and galaxy structure.
The FCC sets certain radio astronomy service bands as primary allocations in several frequency ranges.
Commercial transmissions are either banned or seriously restricted in these zones to avoid contaminating scientific data.
Ground-based telescopes work with satellite operators to keep interference at bay.
Systems like the Atacama Large Millimeter Array and Very Large Array absolutely depend on clean spectrum access for deep space research.
Weather radar systems use dedicated spectrum around 2700-2900 MHz and 9300-9500 MHz for tracking precipitation.
The National Weather Service operates NEXRAD Doppler radar networks and really can’t tolerate interference in these bands. interference-free operation
Scientific research satellites use certain bands for Earth observation missions.
NASA and NOAA rely on frequencies between 1675-1710 MHz for meteorological data and climate monitoring.
Federal agencies like the Department of Energy run specialized radio systems for nuclear research facilities.
These allocations support communications for particle accelerators and national laboratories.
The National Institute of Standards and Technology keeps time and frequency standards using protected spectrum.
WWV and WWVB broadcast precise timing signals for navigation and scientific uses.
The United States faces a real shortage of licensed mid-band spectrum compared to China and other countries.
Demand for wireless connectivity keeps surging as 5G and even 6G technologies move forward.
Federal agencies are exploring dynamic spectrum sharing models and working on policy reforms to tackle these pressures.
The rollout of 5G networks has caused demand for spectrum to skyrocket across the United States.
Mid-band spectrum between 3-6 GHz is especially valuable for high-capacity, wide-area deployments.
Industries like manufacturing, healthcare, and logistics rely on these bands for advanced applications.
Projections say the United States needs at least 1,500 MHz of additional spectrum just to keep up globally.
China leads in licensed mid-band spectrum allocation, which frankly puts the U.S. at a disadvantage.
The Biden administration’s National Spectrum Strategy recognizes this urgent gap.
Federal spectrum management feels the squeeze as commercial demand explodes while government users still need spectrum for national security.
Key drivers of increased demand include:
5G network expansion requiring wider coverage areas
Internet of Things devices needing reliable connectivity
Autonomous vehicles requiring low-latency communications
Smart city infrastructure demanding robust wireless networks
Federal agencies are working on new ways to get the most out of existing spectrum through advanced sharing technologies.
The Citizens Broadband Radio Service (CBRS) band represents an early attempt at dynamic spectrum sharing.
Results so far show that experimental sharing regimes are pretty complex.
Static spectrum sharing models have delivered more reliable results for big infrastructure investments.
These models offer wide-area coverage and keep the scale needed for mobile broadband.
Dynamic sharing technologies look promising for the future.
These systems could let different users coordinate in real time within the same frequency bands.
Researchers are still working on fine-grain dynamic sharing, which might totally change how we handle spectrum.
The Federal Communications Commission opened the 6 GHz band for unlicensed use, which basically doubled the available mid-band spectrum for wireless internet.
Now, the U.S. has more unlicensed mid-band spectrum than any other country, but licensed spectrum shortages are still a problem.
Congress is under pressure to restore spectrum auction authority to the FCC right away.
The Commercial Spectrum Enhancement Act of 2003 set important precedents through the Spectrum Relocation Fund, which pays federal users for modernization costs.
The federal government plans to create a roadmap for finding more mid-band spectrum, complete with deadlines and real reallocation plans.
This multi-year process needs to start now to keep up with China and other nations.
Critical policy changes under consideration include:
Amended statutory authorities to ensure auction proceeds compensate incumbent users
Better collaboration between government and private sector experts
Streamlined processes for federal agency spectrum transitions
Investment in qualified engineering personnel for technical spectrum management
The World Radio Conference outcomes will shape future U.S. spectrum policy.
American allocations differ more and more from global standards in important mid-band frequencies, which could hurt the domestic 5G supply chain and U.S. competitiveness.
The FCC and NTIA manage spectrum allocation through pretty complicated regulatory frameworks that affect commercial space communications.
Current policies address 5G spectrum needs, federal frequency coordination, and emerging space industry requirements.
The FCC keeps expanding 5G spectrum through mid-band and high-band allocations.
Recent auctions released almost 5 gigahertz of spectrum across the 28 GHz, 24 GHz, and upper millimeter wave bands.
The agency focuses on making more than 600 megahertz available in mid-band frequencies, including the 2.5 GHz, 3.5 GHz, and 3.7-4.2 GHz bands.
These allocations support commercial space operations that depend on high-capacity ground communications.
Low-band spectrum improvements target the 600 MHz, 800 MHz, and 900 MHz bands for wider coverage.
The FCC also opens new unlicensed opportunities in the 5.9 GHz, 6 GHz, and above 95 GHz bands for next-gen wireless.
The FCC publishes official frequency allocation tables on its online spectrum dashboard and in regulatory databases.
These documents show current band assignments across the 0-300 GHz spectrum.
The NTIA provides federal frequency allocation charts that go along with FCC commercial allocations.
Both agencies maintain about 800 frequency bands for 34 different radio services.
You can download current allocation tables directly from agency websites.
The documents include technical specs, service definitions, and coordination requirements for each frequency band.
The NTIA manages federal government spectrum use, while the FCC handles commercial and non-federal allocations.
This dual system splits responsibilities between civilian and government frequency needs.
NTIA coordinates spectrum sharing between federal agencies and commercial operators.
The agency works on national spectrum planning to meet current and future needs.
Federal spectrum management covers military communications, satellite operations, and scientific research frequencies.
The NTIA makes sure these critical government functions stay interference-free while allowing commercial innovation.
The International Telecommunication Union sets global frequency coordination standards that influence U.S. policies.
ITU regions define how countries handle spectrum use across borders.
U.S. allocation plans have to consider international coordination, especially for satellite communications and cross-border services.
The FCC and NTIA try to align domestic policies with ITU frameworks but still want to keep national flexibility.
International coordination becomes crucial for space communications systems that operate across countries.
ITU standards help prevent interference between national systems and make global interoperability possible.
The FCC spectrum dashboard gives real-time data on frequency allocations, license holders, and spectrum availability.
You can search specific frequency bands to see current assignments and regulatory status.
The dashboard shows auction results, license transfers, and regulatory proceedings that affect spectrum allocation.
Commercial operators use this info to plan network deployments and find available frequencies.
Interactive features let you filter by frequency range, geographic area, and service type.
The system provides technical data needed for interference analysis and coordination studies between spectrum users.
Low-band spectrum sits below 1 GHz. It covers wide areas for cellular networks and public safety teams. These frequencies get through buildings pretty well, though they don’t carry as much data.
Mid-band frequencies, between 1 and 6 GHz, strike a balance between coverage and capacity. 5G networks and satellite communications rely on these bands a lot. The 2.5 GHz and 3.5 GHz bands, in particular, help support commercial space operations and terrestrial wireless services.
High-band millimeter wave spectrum, which starts above 24 GHz, opens up high-capacity applications, but the range is short. These frequencies handle space-to-ground communications and satellite links. You’ll also find them powering dense urban wireless networks—commercial space tourism operations actually depend on them for those mission-critical connections.
