Iran has been building up space capabilities since the 1950s, moving from early international partnerships to launching its own satellites and setting its sights on human spaceflight. In 2009, Iran achieved orbital launch capability.
Right now, Iran runs both civilian and military space programs. They’re aiming to send astronauts to space by 2032, which is pretty ambitious.
Iran’s space exploration ambitions kicked off in 1957 when the country joined 17 others to form the Committee for International Cooperation in Space at the United Nations. That early step really showed Iran wanted in on the space age from the get-go.
By 1959, Iran became one of the 24 founding members of the U.N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. This move helped secure Iran’s spot in the international space community.
Things got more formal in 2004 when Iran set up the Iranian Space Agency (ISA). The agency manages Iran’s space goals, covering scientific research, satellite building, and human spaceflight dreams.
The Iranian Space Research Center works right alongside ISA, handling research and operations. Together, these two form the core of Iran’s civilian space program.
In 2009, Iran became an orbital-launch-capable nation. That put Iran among a small group of countries able to launch satellites on their own.
Since then, Iran has increased its launch frequency and put more satellites in orbit. They’ve recently managed to launch four satellites, which says a lot about their technical progress.
Some standout missions include the Pars-1 satellite, which can snap images with 15-meter resolution. The Chamran satellite is used as a platform to test out orbital control and correction systems.
Iran keeps its civilian and military space programs separate. In April 2020, the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps launched Iran’s first military satellite, showing the world that a parallel military space effort exists.
The Qaem 100 solid-fuel satellite carrier has pulled off three successful launches in a row. Iran also managed to inject a payload into low Earth orbit using the Simorgh satellite carrier.
Iran’s space program has hit some impressive technical milestones. They injected a 300-gram payload into low Earth orbit and tested out orbital transfer block tech for higher orbits.
Private companies have stepped up too, building and launching the Hodhod and Kowsar satellites independently. That’s a big leap for Iran’s commercial space industry.
Infrastructure is a big focus. The Chabahar National Space Center is about 80% finished and should become a hub for international satellite launches pretty soon.
Human spaceflight is moving forward, at least on paper. Back in February 2015, researchers showed off the E1 capsule, a mock-up of what could be Iran’s first crewed spacecraft.
Iran says it’ll send an astronaut to space by spring 2032. They’re also talking about landing someone on the Moon within a decade, which is a bold claim.
Right now, Iran calls itself the ninth country able to make and launch satellites. Their program covers both observation and communication satellites.
The Iranian Space Agency runs under a dual-track system, keeping civilian and military space operations separate. Hassan Salarieh heads up the civilian agency, which reports to the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology and works with Iran’s Supreme Space Council.
On February 28, 2004, Iran’s parliament officially created the Iranian Space Agency. The agency grew out of Iran’s early space activities, which started in the late 1950s with the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.
The agency falls under the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology. Its main job is to use space science and technology for peaceful, civilian purposes.
During the 2010s, Iran’s space program ran into some trouble. Around 2015, President Rouhani quietly put major projects on hold because of international pressure and economic issues.
President Ebrahim Raisi brought the program back to life in 2021. He brought the Supreme Space Council back after a ten-year break and set new, ambitious goals for satellite launches.
Hassan Salarieh is the current head of the Iranian Space Agency. In 2025, Iran’s Minister of Communications and Information Technology, Seyed Sattar Hashemi, reappointed him.
Salarieh also holds the title of Vice-Minister of ICT. He serves as secretary to the Supreme Space Council, which calls the shots on Iran’s civilian space policy.
The Supreme Space Council includes ministers from communications, defense, science, and a few other departments. The president of Iran oversees this council directly.
The agency works closely with other research centers, like the Iran Space Research Center (ISRC) and the Aerospace Research Institute. These groups handle technical development and research.
The Iranian Space Agency coordinates peaceful space activities across all of Iran’s government agencies. It acts as the main point of contact for international space organizations and forums.
The agency designs and builds both research and operational satellites. It oversees satellite launches using Iran’s own rockets and manages ground-based space infrastructure.
Iran’s dual-track space program creates some unique coordination headaches. The civilian program under ISA runs alongside military space operations managed by the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps.
The agency keeps relationships going with international partners, even with sanctions in place. Iran is a member of the Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization and signs bilateral agreements when possible.
ISA works with Iran’s Ministry of Defense and the IRGC on shared tech and infrastructure. Lately, IRGC representatives have started showing up at Supreme Space Council meetings, which hints at closer collaboration.
Iran has built several rocket systems for launching satellites, with the Simorgh rocket as its main heavy-lift vehicle. The country’s also rolled out advanced orbital transfer systems and, honestly, has seen its share of both wins and setbacks.
The Simorgh rocket is Iran’s top satellite launch vehicle. This multi-stage rocket has put Iran’s biggest payloads into orbit so far.
In December 2024, Simorgh launched three spacecraft into low-Earth orbit. That mission was a big step up for Iran’s space program.
Iranian engineers worked on an Optimized Simorgh with better performance. This new version will fly alongside the standard Simorgh in upcoming launches.
The rocket uses liquid fuel. Iran plans more Simorgh launches through 2026 as part of a bigger satellite rollout.
Iran didn’t stop there. They’ve also built the Zoljanah and Qaem 100 launch vehicles, which handle different payload sizes for various missions.
Iran made a leap with the Saman-1 orbital transfer block. This tech moves satellites between orbits after they’re first launched.
The Saman-1 system lets Iran use smaller, less fuel-hungry rockets by shifting satellites to their final orbits later. It’s a smart way to save fuel and money.
This system makes satellite deployment cheaper and more efficient. It fits right in with Iran’s goal of extending its reach in space.
Iran tested the Saman-1 system in recent missions. Pulling off orbital transfers is a pretty sophisticated feat—only a handful of countries can do it.
During these tests, the Fakhr-1 satellite also launched. Both missions showed Iran’s growing skills in space operations.
Iran scored its first big space win in April 2020 with the Noor satellite. The military built it at home and launched it on the new Qased Space Launch Vehicle.
That Noor launch revealed just how active Iran’s military is in space. It definitely caught the world’s attention.
Not every launch has gone smoothly. Iran delayed the Zafar and Paya satellites from their planned 2024 launches to 2025.
But lately, Iran’s picked up the pace and reliability. In January 2025, they put multiple satellites into orbit using tech similar to intercontinental ballistic missiles.
They’re planning more test and operational launches for the Martyr Soleimani Satellite Constellation through 2026. The Nahid-2 satellite will fly on both domestic and international rockets.
Iran has made real progress in satellite technology through homegrown launches and partnerships. The Iranian Space Agency has put reconnaissance, research, and communications satellites into orbit and is working more closely with Russia for advanced missions.
Iran’s domestic satellite program has produced some impressive missions. In December 2024, the Simorgh rocket carried three spacecraft into low-Earth orbit at once, which was a first for Iran.
The Chamran satellite is a key research mission, testing out orbital control and correction systems. It launched on the Qaem 100 solid-fuel carrier, which has now notched three successful launches in a row.
On National Space Technology Day, Iran showed off three new satellites: Pars-1, Pars-2, and Navak. These highlight Iran’s growing skill in satellite manufacturing.
Right now, the Iranian Space Agency has 25 satellites under construction. They’re planning both test and operational launches for the Martyr Soleimani Satellite Constellation between 2026 and 2027.
The Nahid-2 satellite is set for launch in 2026, and mission planners are still weighing whether to use a domestic or international rocket.
Iran’s space sector is pushing research and development in advanced satellite technologies. The Iranian Space Agency has built out 60% of the infrastructure for a one-ton-class satellite lab, boosting its manufacturing abilities.
The program also includes biological research, with new capsule development underway. Engineers are working on two biological capsules—one weighing 500 kg and another at 1,500 kg.
That larger capsule is Iran’s biggest project yet and is meant for human spaceflight missions. If they pull it off, Iran could join the small club of countries with human spaceflight capability.
Infrastructure keeps expanding with the Chabahar Space Base in southeastern Iran. The first phase should be done by 2027, giving Iran better launch options for future missions.
Iran has teamed up with Russia for satellite launches through the Russian space program. The Zafar and Paya satellites are scheduled to ride a Russian Soyuz rocket in autumn 2025, according to ISA head Hassan Salarieh.
This marks a shift in Iran’s approach. Instead of launching Zafar and Paya at home in 2025, they’ve pushed both missions to 2026 to use Russian rockets.
The partnership already paid off in November 2024 when a Soyuz-2.1b rocket launched Iranian payloads from Vostochny Cosmodrome. That mission proved Iran-Russia space cooperation works.
Russian launch services give Iran access to reliable rocket tech and established launch sites. The Soyuz has a strong track record, making it a safer bet for high-value satellites.
The Iranian Space Agency plans to keep using both homegrown rockets—Simorgh, Zoljanah, and Qaem 100—and international options for more complex or critical missions.
Iran’s space exploration program looks pretty different now that private companies have jumped into satellite development and launch operations. These partnerships between government agencies and private firms now drive around 20 satellite projects, and they’ve even pulled off the country’s first commercial satellite launches.
In November 2024, Iran hit a big milestone by launching two satellites that private companies developed from the ground up. The Kowsar and Hodhod satellites marked the first time Iran’s private sector played such a direct role in national space efforts.
Kowsar is a high-resolution imaging satellite. Private companies kicked off its design back in 2019. It took five years to go from concept to launch.
Hodhod is all about research. Both satellites launched from a Russian cosmodrome on a Soyuz rocket. This move showed that Iranian private companies can build and deploy orbital assets on their own.
The Iranian Space Agency says these launches shift the country’s space strategy in a big way. Private companies now run a lot of operational space projects that used to be government-only territory.
Iran is working on about 20 new satellites through joint public-private partnerships. The Iranian Space Agency teams up with consortia that mix state institutions and private firms.
The Shahid Soleimani satellite constellation stands out as one of the largest collaborations. Multiple private companies are working side by side with government space agencies. Private firms handle manufacturing, while government agencies offer oversight and technical backup.
Hassan Salarieh, who heads the Iranian Space Agency, said private sector involvement has grown rapidly over the last three years. Companies now manage a big chunk of Iran’s operational space projects.
The government set up a guaranteed purchase program for satellite imagery from homegrown satellites. Private companies are driving this initiative, backed by the Iranian Space Agency. This program gives private investors a real reason to put money into space technologies.
Iran runs several spaceport facilities to keep up with its growing space ambitions. The biggest and boldest is the Chabahar Spaceport, which boasts advanced launch capabilities and a strategic spot for sending satellites up.
Iran built a huge spaceport complex in Chabahar that covers 54 square miles. It’s the country’s third and most advanced spaceport.
Chabahar’s location gives Iran a real edge for space operations. Being close to the equator means rockets use less fuel for launches. That translates to better mission performance and bigger payloads.
The spaceport has multiple launch pads for different rocket types. Semi-heavy liquid-fueled launchers can use the second phase infrastructure. The complex supports bigger, heavier rockets than Iran’s earlier sites.
Iran started building the site a few years ago with help from Russian experts. The second phase opened in 2025, making a big leap in launch capacity. This step marks a huge moment in Iran’s space infrastructure story.
The facility handles both civilian satellite missions and military space launches. Rockets like the Simorgh can operate here. With its size and capabilities, Chabahar is now Iran’s main space launch hub.
The Chabahar complex comes equipped with advanced ground control systems for managing launch operations. These facilities coordinate everything before launch and keep an eye on rocket performance during flight.
Communication data centers at the spaceport process telemetry and tracking data. Ground systems support both fixed and mobile tracking gear. There are antenna systems and specialized networks in place.
Mission control teams can run several launch campaigns at once. The facility tracks satellites after deployment and maintains communication links. These ground systems are essential for Iran’s growing number of space missions.
The ground facilities also handle satellite integration and testing. Clean rooms get payloads ready before launch. Technical buildings house all the specialized equipment needed for operations.
Iran has forged key partnerships with Russia and some regional powers to boost its space capabilities. With Western sanctions in place, Tehran leans heavily on Moscow’s technical know-how and launch facilities while searching for other ways to cooperate internationally.
Russia stands as Iran’s go-to partner for space tech development and satellite launches. The partnership kicked off in 2005 when Russia launched Iran’s first satellite, Sina-1, from Plesetsk Cosmodrome.
Moscow sent Iran’s Khayyam satellite into orbit in August 2022 from Kazakhstan’s Baikonur Cosmodrome using a Soyuz-2.1b rocket. That launch took space cooperation between the two countries to a new level.
Russian state corporation Roscosmos signed deals with Iranian companies SAHAB and SpaceOmid in 2023. These agreements cover launch services, satellite testing, and infrastructure development.
Iran depends on Russian launch facilities because it doesn’t have heavy-lift capabilities yet. The partnership includes technology transfers for Iran’s planned Chabahar spaceport, which aims to become Western Asia’s largest launch site by 2028.
In January 2025, Presidents Putin and Pezeshkian signed a 20-year treaty that locked in expanded space cooperation. The agreement strengthens joint research and peaceful space exploration.
Iran looks for space partnerships in the Middle East and Asia, but politics make things tricky. Most regional countries act cautiously toward Iran’s space ambitions because of concerns over dual-use technology.
China offers some technical support, though not as much as Russia. Iranian officials have tried to open doors with other developing space nations.
Iran’s strategic location near the equator makes Chabahar a tempting spot for international launch services. The facility could attract regional customers if restrictions ever ease up.
Iran wants to be seen as a regional space hub, despite the current hurdles. The country pushes for South-South cooperation models to get around Western tech restrictions.
US sanctions block Iran from Western space tech and international partnerships. These rules force Iran to turn to Russian and Chinese alternatives for key components.
Sanctions hit Iran’s space organizations directly, making any collaboration with European or American companies a nonstarter. This isolation pushes Iran even closer to countries like Russia.
The restrictions slow Iran’s tech progress but deepen ties with Moscow. Iran sees space cooperation as a way to reduce its vulnerability to Western pressure.
Tehran created the Hoda positioning system as a homegrown answer to GPS, knowing that relying on American systems could be risky. For now, Hoda only covers the national territory.
Sanctions push Iran to build its own capabilities, but for the toughest missions, the country still needs Russian expertise.
Iran’s advances in space technology have set off a lot of international worries because satellite launch tech and ballistic missile systems use so many of the same parts. The world keeps a close watch on these developments and responds with a mix of diplomacy and economic measures.
The same rocket tech that puts satellites in orbit can also deliver military payloads across continents. Iran’s Simorgh rocket, built for satellites, uses liquid-fuel engines and multi-stage designs that fit right into long-range missile development.
Space launch vehicles and intercontinental ballistic missiles share key components. Both need powerful engines, guidance systems, and heat-resistant materials for reentry. The propulsion technology that gets rockets off the ground is the foundation for weapons delivery too.
Iran’s space program started in 2009 with the Omid satellite. Since then, the country has built more advanced launch capabilities. Western intelligence agencies track these moves closely, knowing the know-how can shift easily to military uses.
The dual-use nature of space tech blurs the line between peaceful exploration and weapons development. Rocket engines, navigation computers, and structural materials can serve both civilian and military needs without any real changes.
The United States and European allies have clamped down with strict export controls on space-related tech to Iran. These rules target engines, guidance systems, and special materials that could help both the space and missile programs.
International sanctions focus on dual-use goods that could boost Iran’s aerospace capabilities. Companies face heavy penalties for sending restricted technology, even if it’s for civilian space projects.
European countries tightened up on tech exports after worries about Iranian drones in conflicts. These steps aim to keep civilian space components out of military hands.
The global space community keeps working on new rules for dual-use technology. These “rules of the road” try to balance commercial space growth with worries about weapons proliferation.
Iran’s space program has picked up speed with clear plans for more satellite launches and human spaceflight. The Iranian Space Agency has set out some ambitious goals for the next couple of years and is also building the foundation for long-term space exploration.
The Iranian Space Agency wants to launch six satellites in the next year. That’s a big jump in activity compared to what they’ve done before.
The PARS 3 satellite is a flagship project now in the design stage. This imaging satellite aims for two-meter accuracy in Earth observation.
Iran has 20 new satellites at different development stages right now. The private sector is taking on a bigger role, especially after pulling off the Hodhod and Kowsar launches.
The Simorgh and Zoljanah rockets will be the main launch vehicles for these missions. These homegrown rockets have already managed to put several payloads into low Earth orbit.
Recent launches included four satellites, like the remote-sensing Pars-1 and the research-focused Chamran. The private sector played a major part in building and deploying these satellites.
Iran has started working on biological capsules to carry humans into space. These capsules mark the country’s first real step toward crewed spaceflight.
The Iranian Space Agency takes part in international research on human spaceflight. These connections help with technical know-how and knowledge sharing.
Plans include building lunar rovers as part of bigger exploration goals. This technology will support future moon missions and show off Iran’s robotics.
The new Chabahar Space Center should make launches more efficient because it’s close to the equator. That means less fuel needed and better mission performance, especially for future human spaceflights.
Iran’s space agency set clear targets for the near future. Six satellite launches are at the top of the list, backed up by ongoing rocket development.
The human biological capsule project aims for real progress in this period. Testing will focus on life support and safety systems.
Private sector participation is set to grow, with more collaboration planned with government programs. This model already worked well for recent satellite launches.
Iran wants to show it can inject a 300-gram payload into low Earth orbit using the Simorgh rocket. Hitting that milestone will prove the launch vehicle’s capability for bigger missions down the line.
Space exploration efforts will keep building up domestic skills while staying open to international cooperation. The Iranian Space Agency continues to develop both research programs and practical satellite applications.
Iran’s space exploration program doesn’t just focus on satellites; it also takes on practical projects that matter for the country. Space technology helps Iran monitor environmental changes, build out its telecommunications networks, and even boost agriculture using Earth observation systems.
Iran runs several remote sensing satellites that give them important data for managing resources and watching over the environment. The Pars satellite series snaps high-res images of Iran’s landscape.
These satellites spot natural resources and help track environmental shifts. The Khayyam satellite, built with help from Russia, brings advanced imaging to the table.
It keeps an eye on deforestation, urban sprawl, and water levels across the region. Iranian scientists analyze satellite data to study climate patterns and seasonal shifts.
This information guides water management in dry areas. Agricultural planners use it to make smarter crop decisions.
The Kowsar satellite delivers detailed Earth images for mapping. Government agencies use these to keep geographic databases current.
Urban planners rely on fresh land use data for new development projects.
Iran’s space program puts a big emphasis on strengthening domestic communication through satellites. The goal? Cut down on dependence on foreign networks.
Space-based systems connect remote regions where laying cables just isn’t practical. Iranian telecommunications satellites support internet and mobile services.
These satellites bring connectivity to rural areas that don’t have fiber optics. They also act as backup communication channels during emergencies.
Iran’s space agency wants to launch even more powerful communication satellites soon. The next generation will offer more bandwidth and wider coverage.
Commercial uses include TV broadcasts and data transmission. Iranian engineers build satellites tailored for the country’s geography and communication needs.
This strategy ensures coverage where people actually live. The tech supports both government and military communication as well.
Iran leans on satellite technology to track natural disasters and help with emergency response. Weather satellites follow storm systems and give early warnings.
Earth observation satellites help assess damage from earthquakes, floods, and other disasters. Agriculture gets a boost too—farmers tap into satellite data to monitor crop health and soil.
This info helps them fine-tune irrigation and fertilizer use. Remote sensing satellites track drought across Iran’s farmlands.
That data guides water allocation during dry spells. Agencies use it to predict harvests and plan food distribution.
When disasters hit and ground networks go down, emergency crews switch to satellite communications. This keeps rescue teams and command centers in sync.
Satellite images help responders locate trouble spots and map out relief efforts.
Iran’s space program faces some tough financial and technical obstacles, but it’s not all bad news. The Iranian Space Agency has to work around international sanctions and a tight budget while still chasing ambitious goals like human spaceflight.
The Iranian Space Agency operates on a shoestring budget, mostly because of ongoing sanctions. These restrictions make it hard to get advanced parts and materials for spacecraft development.
Iran spends way less on space than the big players do. Most of their technology gets developed at home, since buying proven systems from abroad isn’t really an option.
Technical challenges pop up everywhere, especially when it comes to building reliable life support for humans in space. Iran’s rockets can launch satellites, but they’re not quite powerful enough for crewed missions.
Key technical gaps include:
Western countries keep a wary eye on Iran’s rocket work, since the same tech can apply to ballistic missiles. That complicates things further.
Despite all the hurdles, Iran keeps showing innovation. The Zuljanah rocket, which uses both solid and liquid fuel, is a good example of technical creativity.
Domestic manufacturing has really ramped up. Iranian engineers now design and build satellites like the Noor series entirely inside Iran.
The Iranian Space Agency looks to Russia and China for technology transfer. These partnerships open doors to advanced systems and training.
Plans for bio-capsules and lunar rovers show just how ambitious Iran’s long-term vision is. The goal is to send astronauts into orbit within the next decade, hopefully with some help from their international partners.
Universities play a big part in this progress. Iranian researchers focus on materials science and propulsion, feeding new ideas into the space program.
A young and educated population gives Iran a solid base for future space achievements. Plenty of engineers get advanced training in aerospace fields.
Iran’s space program has launched military reconnaissance satellites using rockets built at home. The missions often mix civilian research with military goals.
Iran pulled off its first dual-purpose military satellite launch with Noor in April 2020, using the Qased rocket. That satellite orbits at 426-444 km and handles reconnaissance.
The Iranian Space Agency also built the Simorgh launcher, which can carry 100 kg payloads to 500 km altitude. It’s a three-stage rocket, 27 meters long and weighing 87 tons.
Iranian rocket tech has shifted from liquid-fuel to solid-fuel systems. The Safir launch family places 50-60 kg satellites into orbits between 300-450 km.
Iran built launch facilities like the Imam Khomeini Spaceport in Semnan and another in Shahrud. These sites handle the country’s growing satellite launches.
Iran’s space program is smaller than giants like the U.S., Russia, or China. The main focus is on launching small satellites into low Earth orbit.
Iran set up its space agency in 2004, so it’s still pretty young compared to NASA, which started in 1958. The budget is much smaller too—nowhere near NASA’s billions.
Iran has launched several homemade satellites, including Omid, Rasad-1, and Fajr. That puts Iran in the select club with independent launch abilities.
Much of Iran’s space technology comes from adapting ballistic missile systems. This dual-use approach stands apart from the more civilian-oriented agencies elsewhere.
Iran aims for a few different things: Earth observation, telecom, and scientific research. The Noor satellite provides reconnaissance data for both military and civilian uses.
Communication satellites like Sina-1 and Zohreh boost internet, TV, and radio across Iran. These satellites help connect remote places.
Environmental monitoring is another major goal. Satellites track disasters and climate patterns.
The Environment 1 satellite helps Iran work with neighbors on disaster response. Iran also wants to develop human spaceflight by 2025, with some help from Russia and China.
Iran sent its first homemade satellite, Omid, into orbit in 2009 with the Safir rocket. That was a big milestone for the country.
The Sina-1 satellite went up in 2005, thanks to a joint Iranian-Russian project using a Kosmos-3M rocket. In 2008, Iran helped launch the Environment 1 satellite with China and Thailand.
Iran has also launched the Rasad-1 Earth observation satellite and the Fajr communications satellite, which includes GPS and solar cells.
The Noor military satellite, launched in 2020, is Iran’s most advanced so far. It shows Iran can build sophisticated space tech on its own.
Iran teamed up with Russia for early projects, including the launches of Sina-1 and Zohreh. These partnerships helped Iran gain experience with satellites and launches.
Iran worked with China and Thailand on the Environment 1 satellite in 2008. That project focused on disaster monitoring and response.
Iran takes part in the Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization and has carried out 10 satellite projects through this regional group.
The country designed the Besharat satellite with the Organization of Islamic Cooperation. International sanctions have made it tough to get advanced tech and launch services, so Iran keeps pushing for more independence and works with non-Western agencies when possible.
Iran’s military satellite launches have sparked international worries about possible hidden intercontinental ballistic missile development. The way space launch technology can serve both peaceful and military purposes keeps raising tensions with the United States and its allies.
When Iran pulled off the Noor satellite launch, it showed the world it could put reconnaissance assets into orbit on its own. That move definitely shakes up regional security and makes Middle Eastern countries rethink their strategic calculations.
Iran has actually been a member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space since 1958. But now, with its space program veering toward military applications, people are starting to wonder about this shift and what it means for the future of space as a peaceful domain.
Sanctions aimed at Iran’s space technology have nudged the country to work more closely with China and Russia. These new partnerships might end up changing the way countries cooperate in space and could even challenge Western influence in commercial space markets.
