American fusion rocket development blends nuclear fusion energy with advanced propulsion systems. The goal? Spacecraft engines that might finally slash travel times across the solar system.
Companies like RocketStar have pulled off some impressive demonstrations with fusion-enhanced plasma thrusters. Meanwhile, US firms and international teams keep pushing what’s possible in nuclear propulsion.
RocketStar leads the charge in American fusion propulsion with their FireStar Fusion Drive. This is the world’s first fusion-enhanced electric propulsion system.
The FireStar tech uses water-fueled pulsed plasma thrusters, boosted by aneutronic nuclear fusion. It’s a mouthful, but the gist is: they create high-speed protons from ionized water vapor.
These protons smash into boron nuclei in the thruster’s exhaust. That collision triggers fusion, turning boron into high-energy carbon.
Then, the carbon decays into three alpha particles, giving thrust a 50% boost over standard plasma thrusters. That’s a pretty big leap.
RocketStar has already shown this technology works in real-world tests. They combine their fusion systems with aerospike engines for the Cowbell rocket, which targets suborbital flights up to 21,000 meters from Cape Canaveral’s Launch Complex 48.
Princeton Satellite Systems works with international partners on the Dual Direct Fusion Drive (DDFD). This compact reactor provides both thrust and electrical power for spacecraft.
DDFD offers payload-to-propellant mass ratios that are tough to beat.
American fusion rocket designs focus on practical, workable tech instead of just theory. RocketStar’s aneutronic fusion method creates almost no radioactive byproducts, which makes their systems a lot safer for crewed missions.
US companies also take an integration-first approach. Instead of building separate fusion reactors, they combine fusion energy with existing propulsion tech.
For example, RocketStar pairs fusion thrusters with aerospike engines and reusable rockets. It’s all about making things work together.
The US fusion propulsion scene thrives on collaboration. Private companies, government agencies, and universities all pitch in, speeding up development and opening up more funding options.
The Defense Systems Information Analysis Center keeps a close eye on plasma thruster progress, showing the military’s obvious interest in fusion propulsion.
Manufacturing is a big focus too. RocketStar 3D-prints its aerospike engines and wants to create thousands of aerospace jobs with bigger production facilities.
Pulsar Fusion from the UK stands as the main international challenger to American fusion rocket tech. The British team wants to build nuclear fusion rockets that could reach Mars in just 30 days.
That’s a wild improvement over today’s 6-9 month chemical rocket journeys.
| Approach | USA (RocketStar) | UK (Pulsar Fusion) |
|---|---|---|
| Fusion Type | Aneutronic (Boron-Proton) | Traditional Deuterium-Tritium |
| Current Status | Demonstrated Prototype | Design Phase |
| Integration | Hybrid with Chemical Rockets | Standalone Nuclear System |
| Target Market | Commercial Space Tourism | Deep Space Exploration |
Pulsar Fusion just opened an Austin, Texas office to woo US investors and clients. Clearly, the American space market and funding scene are hard to resist.
American fusion propulsion moves faster thanks to established aerospace infrastructure. Companies can test rockets at places like Cape Canaveral and tap into NASA’s commercial crew program experience.
International efforts often don’t have access to that kind of testing ecosystem.
The US also leads in using artificial intelligence to control fusion reactors. Princeton Satellite Systems uses AI to fine-tune reactor designs, while others stick to more traditional engineering.
Fusion rockets use the same nuclear fusion process that powers stars. They create plasma-based propulsion systems that could reach speeds way beyond what chemical rockets can do.
These spacecraft engines rely on direct fusion drive setups. They contain and direct superheated plasma to generate thrust.
Nuclear fusion happens when light atomic nuclei fuse into heavier elements, releasing a ton of energy. Fusion rockets usually use hydrogen isotopes like deuterium and tritium for fuel.
The reaction cranks temperatures up to 100 million degrees Celsius or more. At that point, matter becomes plasma—a state where electrons break free from atomic nuclei.
This fusion plasma packs energy densities thousands of times higher than chemical combustion. The high-energy exhaust particles blast out, creating thrust by Newton’s third law.
Fusion propulsion systems can hit specific impulse ratings of 10,000-15,000 seconds. Chemical rockets? They max out around 300-500 seconds.
Running a fusion rocket means carefully controlling fuel injection and magnetic fields. Engineers have to keep plasma stable while squeezing out as much thrust as possible.
Plasma physics dictates how fusion rockets tame and direct the superheated stuff created by nuclear reactions. Magnetic confinement systems use strong electromagnetic fields to corral plasma.
Linear fusion reactors whip up magnetic “bottles” that trap plasma particles. These fields stop plasma from touching the walls, which would cool things off way too fast.
Keeping plasma contained takes steady energy input for strong magnetic fields. The system has to balance plasma pressure with field intensity.
Field-reversed configurations make closed magnetic loops for better plasma stability. This setup lets plasma stick around longer and boosts fusion reaction rates.
Engineers tweak magnetic field shapes to control temperature and density, aiming for peak fusion efficiency.
Direct fusion drive systems turn fusion energy straight into propulsion—no extra steps. This direct approach squeezes the most out of each fusion reaction.
The Dual Direct Fusion Drive (DDFD) merges power generation and propulsion. These systems give spacecraft both thrust and electrical juice.
Exhaust velocities can hit 98,100-147,150 meters per second thanks to magnetic plasma acceleration. That’s how you get big changes in speed without burning much fuel.
DDFD systems crank out about 2 megawatts of electrical power while pushing the spacecraft forward. No need for separate power plants.
Magnetic nozzles steer plasma exhaust for thrust vectoring. The field shapes the flow to make propulsion as efficient as possible.
Testing starts with ground-based reactor demos. Later, engineers will try these systems in orbit to see how they handle real space conditions.
A handful of American companies are racing to build fusion-powered rocket tech that could cut Mars travel times from nine months down to just three. They’re blending advanced plasma physics with propulsion to create next-generation engines.
Pulsar Fusion started in the UK but now has a big US presence. They’re developing the Sunbird Migratory Transfer Vehicle, a fusion-powered add-on for spacecraft in low-Earth orbit.
Sunbird uses helium-3 mixed with deuterium for its fusion reactions. With this fuel, the craft could hit speeds over 500,000 kilometers per hour.
Only NASA’s Parker Solar Probe has gone faster, and it needed gravity assists to do it.
Key Specs:
Pulsar Fusion wants to test Sunbird prototypes in orbit by 2027. Helium-3 is rare on Earth, but companies like Interlune are eyeing the Moon for mining this isotope.
Avalanche Energy builds compact fusion reactors for both space and Earth. They’re based in Seattle and make micro-fusion devices small enough for spacecraft, but still powerful.
Their reactor uses electrostatic confinement fusion. Instead of magnetic fields, they trap fuel particles with electric fields.
The small size makes it easier to fit these reactors into spacecraft.
Timeline:
Big aerospace players have invested in Avalanche. Their tech could power both propulsion and onboard electronics for long-haul missions.
Thea Energy works on stellarator fusion technology, which looks promising for space propulsion. Their reactor design keeps plasma steady, avoiding the pulsed operation that trips up other fusion systems.
Stellarators use twisted magnetic fields to trap plasma. This approach avoids the disruptions that can mess with other reactors.
Steady operation is a must for spacecraft needing reliable thrust over months or even years.
Advantages:
Thea Energy teams up with NASA to adapt their tech for space. Their reactors could power propulsion and provide electricity for Mars and deep space missions.
Three companies stand out in the race for commercial fusion power on Earth. Commonwealth Fusion has raised over $2 billion for its tokamak reactors.
TAE Technologies focuses on clean hydrogen-boron fuel with $1.2 billion in funding. Helion Energy aims for 2028 commercial rollout and already counts Microsoft as its first customer.
TAE Technologies takes a unique angle on fusion power with Field-Reversed Configuration (FRC) tech. They’ve landed over $1.2 billion from backers like Google, Chevron, and Venrock.
Key Innovation: TAE uses aneutronic hydrogen-boron fuel (p-B11). This process barely makes any radioactive waste, which is a huge plus compared to the usual fusion methods.
Their Norman reactor hit plasma temps over 75 million degrees Celsius. Next up is the Copernicus reactor, aiming for 100 million degrees by 2025.
TAE and Google have worked together since 2014, using machine learning to fine-tune plasma control and stability. That’s given them a real edge in optimizing operations.
They’re planning to roll out the Da Vinci power plant commercially in the early 2030s. TAE’s linear reactor design stands apart from the circular tokamaks most others use.
Helion Energy has raised over $1 billion, with a $425 million Series F round from SoftBank and Vision Fund 2. They use Magneto-Inertial Fusion, blending magnetic and inertial fusion techniques.
Commercial Milestone: Helion inked a deal with Microsoft in May 2023 to deliver 50 megawatts of fusion electricity by 2028. That’s the first real commercial contract for fusion power.
Their Trenta prototype hit 100 million degrees Celsius in 2021. The Polaris reactor is next, aiming for net electricity before they go commercial.
Helion’s reactors are modular and about the size of a shipping container. That makes it much easier to plug them into existing power grids or industrial sites.
They’re targeting commercial operations by 2028, which is a seriously ambitious timeline. Sam Altman and other tech bigwigs have backed Helion’s fast-track strategy.
Commonwealth Fusion Systems (CFS) stands out in fusion funding, having raised over $2 billion—including a record-breaking $1.8 billion Series B round in December 2021. Big names like Bill Gates, Google, and Khosla Ventures have backed them.
Technology Focus: CFS works on compact tokamak reactors and uses high-temperature superconducting (HTS) magnets built from REBCO tapes. In September 2021, their team tested the world’s most powerful HTS magnet, hitting 20 teslas.
MIT’s Plasma Science and Fusion Center spun off CFS, and the company still collaborates closely with MIT researchers. They started building the SPARC demonstration reactor in 2021, aiming to finish by 2025.
SPARC’s main goal? Prove net energy gain from fusion reactions. If all goes well, CFS will move on to ARC, their commercial power plant, which they want running in the early 2030s.
CFS pushes for rapid deployment of compact, cost-effective reactors. Their MIT partnership gives them access to decades of tokamak know-how and plasma physics expertise.
They’re taking the most traditional route to fusion power, building on established tokamak tech but adding advanced superconducting magnets.
Stellarator technology is carving out its own path for fusion propulsion systems, maybe even powering the next generation of spacecraft. Recent breakthroughs from Type One Energy and research at Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory show how these twisted magnetic field designs might finally get past some of the old tokamak limitations, especially for space.
Type One Energy came up with the Infinity Two stellarator design, tackling decades-old fusion reactor efficiency problems. Their key move? Creating quasi-isodynamic magnetic fields that cut down particle loss rates a lot.
Infinity Two uses computationally optimized coil setups. These coils produce precise magnetic fields, confining plasma far better than earlier stellarators ever could. The design keeps plasma stable without the tricky feedback controls tokamaks need.
Researchers at the University of Texas teamed up with Type One Energy to solve some tough stellarator optimization problems. They focused on reducing turbulent transport and boosting energy confinement. That’s essential for keeping fusion reactions going during long space missions.
Infinity Two takes a compact approach to stellarators. Smaller reactors make it easier to fit them into spacecraft, where every bit of mass and volume matters.
Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory (PPPL) kicked off stellarator research way back in 1951, led by Lyman Spitzer. Today, PPPL continues to advance stellarator science, working with international partners and using powerful computational modeling.
PPPL works with Germany’s Wendelstein 7-X stellarator facility. This partnership gives them valuable data on plasma behavior in optimized stellarator setups. They also run their own experiments in the US, testing out new magnetic field designs.
PPPL has developed some pretty advanced computational tools for stellarator optimization. These tools predict particle loss rates and plasma confinement before anyone has to build expensive prototypes. This speeds up stellarator development by a lot.
They also collaborate with Auburn University and the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Together, they tackle engineering challenges like precision coil manufacturing and plasma control systems.
Stellarators rely entirely on external coils to create magnetic confinement. Tokamaks, on the other hand, need both external coils and internal plasma currents. This core difference gives stellarators some real advantages for space use.
Key Design Differences:
Stellarators need less injected power to keep plasma reactions going. That’s a big plus when you’re dealing with the limited electrical power on spacecraft. The designs also offer more flexibility in reactor shape and size.
Building stellarator coils is tough. The twisted shapes require millimeter-level precision across large structures. Tokamak coils stick to simpler circular shapes, making them easier to manufacture and maintain.
Stellarators sidestep plasma disruption events, which can damage reactor parts. That reliability really matters for deep-space missions, where fixing things isn’t really an option.
American companies are making real progress in fusion technology using field-reversed configuration reactors and advanced magnetic confinement systems. With these breakthroughs, they might get spacecraft to Mars in just 30 days, not months.
Princeton Satellite Systems built the PFRC-2 reactor, which holds the world record and forms the foundation for next-generation fusion propulsion. This field-reversed configuration creates a stable plasma that can shoot out exhaust at hundreds of kilometers per second.
The PFRC-2 uses electromagnetic heating and confinement to control fusion plasma in ways regular rocket engines can’t touch. Scientists closely study plasma shots from this reactor to figure out how super-hot fusion plasma behaves as it exits a rocket engine.
Key Performance Metrics:
Pulsar Fusion joined forces with Princeton to use AI for analyzing plasma behavior data. Their partnership centers on creating predictive simulations of ion and electron movement inside fusion plasma.
Advanced magnetic confinement systems are the next step in fusion propulsion. These systems use strong magnetic fields to contain and direct fusion plasma, offering precision that’s a thousand times better than today’s ion thrusters.
The Direct Fusion Drive concept uses steady-state magnetic confinement in a compact reactor. This setup ditches the huge infrastructure ground-based fusion plants need, making it a much better fit for spacecraft.
Space itself offers some perks for magnetic confinement fusion. The vacuum and cold temperatures out there help keep plasma stable and make magnetic fields more effective.
Magnetic Confinement Benefits:
These magnetic systems allow closed-loop control of fusion reactions, so teams can tweak thrust and power output in real time during missions.
The commercial fusion energy sector is ready to shake up America’s space economy. Privately funded fusion rocket development and new industry partnerships are speeding things up, moving away from government-only programs and opening the door to fresh economic opportunities.
Private companies are really leading the fusion rocket charge now. The Department of Energy’s 2024 strategy puts public-private partnerships front and center. The government has set aside $180 million through the Fusion Innovative Research Engine program to connect research with industry needs.
Key transition elements:
Commercial fusion energy companies can adapt their reactor designs for both terrestrial and space use. This dual approach helps spread out development costs.
The Milestone-Based Fusion Development Program signed deals with eight private companies. These partnerships aim to solve the toughest technical hurdles standing in the way of fusion rockets.
Fusion rocket tech could really change the space economy. Right now, high launch costs limit what’s possible, but fusion propulsion could open up whole new markets.
Economic impacts:
Industry analysts expect fusion rockets to create thousands of high-tech jobs in aerospace manufacturing. The field needs everything from superconducting magnets to advanced materials.
Space commerce stats from the Bureau of Economic Analysis show private investment is on the rise. Fusion propulsion could be the next big leap in that growth.
Commercial space companies can use existing launch facilities while building fusion-specific sites. That keeps initial costs down and helps them get to market faster.
American fusion power plants share key technologies with rocket propulsion systems, creating a neat crossover for research. Major players like Commonwealth Fusion Systems and TAE Technologies are building reactor designs meant to push both terrestrial energy and space exploration forward.
The US leads the world in fusion power development, with private investment topping $6 billion. Commonwealth Fusion Systems plans to show off their SPARC tokamak reactor by 2027, and they want a commercial plant up in Virginia by 2033.
Major US fusion power plant projects:
These power plants use magnetic confinement systems. Tokamaks have donut-shaped plasma chambers. Field-reversed configurations are simpler and cheaper to build.
The Department of Energy’s 2024 Fusion Strategy targets commercial plants by the 2030s. Private companies and government labs work together to bridge the gap between experiments and real-world fusion power.
Fusion power plant tech directly supports advanced rocket propulsion. The magnetic plasma confinement methods used in terrestrial reactors can transition to space-based fusion drives.
NASA’s Direct Fusion Drive program uses reactor designs inspired by terrestrial fusion plants. This system can provide both propulsion and electrical power for spacecraft.
Key shared technologies:
Companies working on fusion power plants often chase rocket applications at the same time. This approach helps split costs between the energy and aerospace sectors.
Helium-3 fuel works for both. Terrestrial fusion plants and space propulsion systems need this rare isotope. Companies like Interlune plan to mine the Moon for helium-3 to supply both markets.
The US government is driving fusion energy research with billions in investments and national lab programs. Major breakthroughs at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory have sped up fusion development, including for propulsion.
The Department of Energy leads US fusion research with hefty funding. In fiscal year 2022, Congress put nearly $1.6 billion into fusion energy sciences. The Inflation Reduction Act added another $280 million just for fusion development.
DOE recently announced $42 million for the Inertial Fusion Energy Science and Technology Accelerated Research program. This created three research hubs at Colorado State University, University of Rochester, and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory reached fusion ignition on December 5, 2022. That shot produced more energy from fusion than the laser energy used to spark the reaction. Researchers have now repeated this result three more times.
Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory plays a key role in magnetic confinement research. The lab develops plasma control tech that’s critical for sustained fusion reactions in both power plants and propulsion.
The National Nuclear Security Administration backs fusion research through science-based stockpile stewardship. These investments give the US world-class diagnostic tools and facilities that also help civilian fusion progress.
Government labs team up directly with private fusion companies using milestone-based development programs.
The Office of Science works with several fusion startups, trying to speed up the move from research to real-world commercial use.
Xcimer Energy Corporation takes part in all three IFE-STAR research hubs. The company gets a boost from government-funded research and brings its own commercial development know-how to the table.
General Atomics also joins forces with more than one national lab.
Companies like Marvel Fusion and Focused Energy use government research sites and tap into public expertise. These partnerships cut development costs and push technical progress closer to practical fusion systems.
The DOE funding model relies on competitive peer reviews. Private companies have to prove their technical skills and business potential before they get any government support.
This way, taxpayer money goes to the fusion tech with the best shot at success, both on Earth and out in space.
Fusion tech still faces some huge technical hurdles before it works for space propulsion.
Developers struggle with the complexity of controlled fusion reactions and the sky-high costs.
Building a working fusion reactor for spacecraft is a massive challenge.
Scientists need to create controlled fusion reactions that actually produce more energy than they use, which means hitting temperatures over 100 million degrees Celsius.
Keeping the superheated plasma contained is the biggest headache. If plasma touches the reactor walls, the reaction just stops.
Magnetic fields have to keep the plasma in place, but current reactors on Earth are huge. Spacecraft need something much smaller and lighter.
Radiation is another beast. Fusion reactions spit out high-energy neutrons that damage materials.
Adding shielding helps, but it makes the system heavier and less efficient.
Fuel is tricky, too. Deuterium is pretty common in seawater, but tritium? It’s rare, radioactive, and needs special facilities to make, which brings a whole new set of regulations.
Power systems have to survive space. Extreme temperatures, radiation, and the vacuum test every part.
Engineers are still searching for materials tough enough to last for years in those conditions.
Fusion rocket development eats up billions before anyone sees a return.
Private companies and government agencies have to back decades of research, all with no guarantee of success.
Manufacturing fusion reactors costs a fortune. These machines need rare materials and super-precise engineering.
Every part costs millions to build and test.
Competition is stiff. Ion drives and nuclear thermal rockets already work and are way cheaper.
They’re the go-to for current missions.
The market for deep space missions is tiny. Only governments and the biggest private companies can afford this tech.
Research facilities need constant upgrades just to keep up with new tech. Testing fusion systems means buying specialized gear that can run into the hundreds of millions.
Insurance and safety rules only add to the bill.
Right now, the United States leads the pack in fusion rocket development.
Breakthroughs in technology could put America ahead in both commercial space travel and deep space exploration.
Private investment has already passed $6 billion. Government initiatives are aiming for fusion propulsion systems by the 2030s, which is pretty wild.
Fusion rockets could be the next big thing for space propulsion.
These systems might cut Mars travel time by 50% compared to chemical rockets. That would turn interplanetary missions from years-long journeys into trips that take just a handful of months.
The commercial fusion energy industry is driving a lot of this progress. Companies working on fusion power plants are also pushing forward propulsion research.
That dual effort speeds up development and helps cut costs for both energy and aerospace.
Space economy perks:
NASA’s Artemis program and private Mars missions are already looking for better propulsion.
Fusion rockets could make long-term space exploration more realistic by delivering reliable, efficient thrust for extended missions.
The tech offers specific impulse values three or four times higher than chemical rockets. That means less fuel and more flexibility for commercial missions.
Development timelines line up closely with commercial fusion energy breakthroughs.
The Department of Energy’s Bold Decadal Vision is targeting viable fusion systems by the 2030s, laying the groundwork for propulsion.
Key phases to watch:
Private companies are trying to speed things up with targeted investments.
SpaceX, Blue Origin, and new fusion startups are all working on propulsion research. Their combined resources might shrink development cycles from decades to just a few years.
Hitting critical milestones depends on keeping fusion reactions going and shrinking reactor designs.
Recent advances in plasma confinement suggest we might see space-qualified systems within the next decade.
Regulations are shifting as the tech advances. The FAA and NASA are putting together safety protocols for fusion-powered spacecraft.
They want to make sure these rockets are safe for crews and cargo, while also keeping commercial use on the table.
Fusion rocket technology could totally change space propulsion, offering performance that blows chemical rockets out of the water.
These advanced propulsion systems might shorten interplanetary trips and let us send bigger payloads farther than ever.
Nuclear fusion rockets could hit exhaust velocities between 30,000 and 300,000 meters per second.
That’s a huge leap over chemical rockets, which usually max out around 4,500 meters per second.
The specific impulse for fusion rockets could land anywhere from 3,000 to 30,000 seconds. Chemical rockets, by comparison, top out at about 450 seconds.
Dr. John Slough’s fusion-driven rocket design shows off direct energy conversion.
The system pushes lithium bands inward to squeeze fusion fuel, making superheated plasma that shoots out as thrust through magnetic nozzles.
Fusion rockets bring energy density that chemical propulsion just can’t match.
Nuclear fuel carries millions of times more energy per kilogram than chemical propellants.
To launch the 6.5-tonne James Webb Space Telescope, the Ariane 5 rocket needed over 400 tonnes of fuel. Fusion propulsion could slash this fuel-to-payload ratio.
Fusion rockets turn nuclear energy straight into propellant motion, skipping the intermediate steps.
Traditional fusion power plants heat water for steam turbines, but rockets avoid that conversion loss.
The efficiency boost means bigger payloads and faster trips. Mission planners could design more capable spacecraft with less total mass.
Radiation shielding is the main safety concern for fusion rockets.
Deuterium-tritium fusion reactions produce high-energy neutrons, so you need serious protection.
Magnetic confinement systems shield spacecraft parts from energetic plasma ions.
The lithium shell in pulsed magneto-inertial fusion designs absorbs most fusion energy before it reaches the vessel walls.
Launches would require strict safety protocols for handling fusion fuel.
Deuterium and tritium need special storage and transport.
Crew radiation exposure is a huge factor in design. Engineers have to balance performance with astronaut safety, especially for long missions.
There’s not much info right now about Pulsar Fusion’s specific work on fusion rocket development.
Most available research focuses on other fusion propulsion ideas and organizations.
NASA’s Fusion Driven Rocket program stands out as a major advance in the field.
The Institute for Advanced Concepts has funded research into electromagnetically driven fusion propulsion.
Several research groups are exploring pulsed fusion approaches for spacecraft.
They’re mixing magnetic and inertial confinement techniques to get controlled fusion reactions.
Mars missions could take just 210 days round trip, including 30 days on the surface.
Right now, chemical propulsion needs 203 days just to get there one way.
Faster missions could become possible with fusion propulsion.
Some research points to possible 93-day round trips to Mars, with three days on the surface.
Crewed spacecraft could weigh 150 tonnes, compared to less than one tonne for earlier Mars missions.
That would mean more room for crew and scientific gear.
Shorter travel times would also mean less exposure to zero gravity and cosmic radiation—both big health risks for long missions.
Fusion rockets just can’t get close to light speed, even though they’re way better than chemical rockets. The way fusion releases energy sets a hard limit on how fast these rockets can go.
Some of the most optimistic designs for fusion rockets might hit a tiny fraction of light speed, but that’s about it. So, even if we build them, traveling to nearby stars would still take decades—or more likely, centuries.
Right now, researchers struggle to achieve controlled fusion reactions in space. Nobody’s managed to build a fusion reactor that actually produces more energy than it eats up.
The biggest hurdle? It’s still confinement. Engineers have to maintain insane temperatures and pressures, which means they need complex magnetic fields and perfect timing for compressing the fuel.
